How the United States Compares to the Rest of the World
The sweeping nature of disenfranchisement in the United States is out of step with the rest of the world. For this report, we examined the laws and practices of 150 countries around the world with populations of 1.5 million and above. We determined that 14 of these countries have not commenced holding or do not ever hold national elections, are under military rule, or have no legal system allowing for voting rights in national elections. The remaining 136 countries vary widely in the health of their democratic systems and protections for related rights. For the purposes of this report, we did not analyze the political systems in these 136 countries beyond determining whether elections were conducted; we focused solely on legislative and constitutional provisions governing voting rights in connection with criminal convictions.
Countries with few legal restrictions on voting for people with criminal convictions
As Table II below shows, the majority of the countries we examined—73 of the 136, or 54 percent—have laws that are far more protective than the United States of the voting rights of people with criminal convictions: 35 countires do not ever restrict voting rights based on criminal convictions, 21 very rarely limit the right to vote, and 17 restrict voting rights for a narrow set of crimes or for limited periods of time. A majority of the world’s countries do not disenfranchise their citizens nearly as often as most U.S. states.
Table II. Seventy-Three Countries that Do Not or Rarely Deny Voting Rights Due to Criminal Convictions
Government of Azerbaijan. “Election Code of the Republic of Azerbaijan,” Retrieved May 9, 2024.; Azerbaijan “Constitution of 1995 with Amendments through 2016,” Retrieved May 9, 2024.
Prison Insider. (2019). Belgium: No hope for improvement in voting system. See also Penal Reform International, Penal Reform International. (2016). The Right of Prisoners to Vote: A Global Overview.
Government of Albania. Article 35, Section VII, The Albanian Criminal Code. OSCE’s Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, 2021. p.11. Retrieved May 9, 2024.
Government of Bangladesh. Article 122, Constitution of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Collaborators Order. Retrieved May 10, 2024.
Government of Bolivia. Article 28, Section II of the Bolivia Constitution. Retrieved May 10, 2024.
Government of Armenia. Article 48 of the Armenian Constitution. Article 48. Retrieved May 10, 2024.; Armenian Electoral Code, Article 2, part 4.
Government of Canada. Sections 244-45, Canada Elections Act (S.C. 2000). Retrieved May 10, 2024.
Government of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Article 1.6-7, Election Code of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Retrieved May 10, 2024.
Churchill, M. (2020). ”Voting Rights in Prison: Issues Paper,” Pro Bono Centre, University of Queensland.; Hill, L. (2016). Precarious Persons: Disenfranchising Australian Prisoners. Australian Journal of Social Issues.
Government of Croatia. Croatia Constitution of 1991 with Amendments through 2013, Article 45. Retrieved May 12, 2024.; European Commission for Democracy Through Law. (2020. October 8). “Report on Electoral Law and Electoral Administration in Europe.
Government of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Electoral Law, Article 7, Democratic Republic of Congo.
Government of Austria. Austrian Federal Law on National Council Elections, Part II, Section II, § 22; Austrian Special Part of the Criminal Code § 278a to § 278, Section 14-18, 24 or 25; Austrian National Socialism Prohibition Act 1947.
Government of Czech Republic. Czech Constitution, Art. 18(3) and Czech Republic Electoral Code, Article 6(1)(c).
Government of Costa Rica. Electoral Act, Costa Rica, Article 144.
Alfaro-Redondo, R. (2015). “Access to Electoral Rights Costa Rica,” European Union Democracy Observatory. FierroNavarro, C. M. (2021). Fierro, “International comparative study on electoral inclusion,” Instituto Nacional Electoral International Affairs Unit.
Government of Denmark. Denmark’s Folketing (Parliamentary) Elections Act 2020, Part 1, Art. 1(1) and Part 8, Art. 54(3).
Government of Benin. Benin Penal Code Art. 89.
Government of Finland. Electoral Law of Finland, Section 9.
German Electoral Code, Sections 13 and 45(5).; German Criminal Code §§ 92a, 101, 102(2), 108(c), 109(i).
Burundi’s Electoral Code, Article 9.
Constitution of Ghana, Article 42;. Supreme Court of Ghana. (2010). Centre for Human Rights & Civil Liberties v. Attorney-General and Electoral Commission, Civil Appeal No. JI/4/2008 & JI/5/2008).
Presidential Decree of Greece (2012); Government Gazette. (2021). Law 4084; European Parliament. (2024). “‘Prisoners’ Voting Rights in European Parliament Elections”.
Central African Republic, Article 5.
Constitution of Iceland, Article 33.; Elections Act of Iceland, Chapter II, Article 3; Elections Act of Iceland, Article 69.
Government of Indonesia. Indonesia Penal Code, Article 87.
Government of Chile. Constitution of Chile, Article 16(2);. (2020, September). “Sufragio de Personas Privadas de Libertad,” p. 7; Fernández, M.J. and Oberti, A. (2021)., “Voting in Prisons is a Right,” CiperHistoria De La Ley. (1980). Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile de 1980., p. 51; Constitution of Chile, Article 16(3); and “Código Electoral. (2009). Publicada en el Alcance 37 a La Gaceta n.° 171. Retrieved March 5, 2024.
Government of Iran. Law for the Elections of the Islamic Consultative Parliament, Iran, chapter 3, article 27; Human Rights Watch. (2021). World Report, Country Chapter: Iran. Retrieved March 5, 2024.
Constitution of Kenya, Article 83. (2010); National Crime Research Center. (2016). Kenya Election Offenses Act of 2016. Retrieved March 5, 2024.
Government of Egypt. Egypt, Law on the Regulation of the Exercise of Political Rights. Retrieved March 5, 2024.
Government of Ireland. Constitution of Ireland, Article 16; Electoral Amendment Act, 2006, Constitution of Ireland (2006). Retrieved May 14, 2024.
Government of Kosovo. Electoral Code of Kosovo, Article 5.; Electoral Rule of Kosovo (2009). Number 04/2008.
Government of France. Penal Code of France, Article 131- 26. Retrieved May 14, 2024.
Knesset Elections Law (Consolidated Version) (originally adopted in 1969), Chapter Two: General Provisions; Hartman, B. (2015). “Incarcerated people of the Election: Thousands of Inmates Line up to Vote at Facilities Across Israel,” The Jerusalem Post.
It is important to note that Israel denies the millions of Palestinians in the Occupied Palestinian Territory living under its rule the right to vote for the authority that exercises primary control over their lives.
Government of Lesotho. Constitution of Lesotho, Article 51.7.; Lesotho National Assembly Electoral Act of 2011, Section 5(2).
Government of Georgia. Constitution of Georgia, Article 24(2). Retrieved May 14, 2024.
Government of Jordan. Election of the House of Representatives, Article 3. Retrieved May 14, 2024.
Government of Malawi. Constitution of Malawi, Article 77(3). Retrieved May 14, 2024.
Government of Latvia. Election Code of Latvia, Article 45.1. Retrieved May 14, 2024.
Government of Moldova. Electoral Code of Moldova, Articles 14 and 78(3)(b); BBC News. (2012). “Prisoner Votes by European Country,” Retrieved May 14, 2024.
Government of Honduras. Penal Code of Honduras, Articles 13, 35, 36, and 42. Criminal Procedure Code of Honduras, Article 445.
Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights. (2020). Parliamentary Elections in Lithuania. Retrieved May 14, 2024.; Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights. (2020). Needs Assessment Mission Report. Retrieved May 14, 2024.
Government of the Netherlands. Netherlands Penal Code, Article 28. Retrieved May 14, 2024.
Government of Iraq. Iraq Penal Code, Section II, Para. 95 and 96. Retrieved May 14, 2024.
European Commission for Democracy Through Law. (2020); Government of Montenegro. Electoral Code of Montenegro; Official Gazette of the Republic of Montenegro. (2018). Criminal Code of Montenegro, Retrieved May 14, 2024.
Government of Norway. (2017). The main features of the Norwegian electoral system. Retrieved May 14, 2024.
Government of Liberia. Constitution of Liberia. (1986). Liberia New Elections Law, Section 5.1. Retrieved May 14, 2024.
Government of Mozambique. (2007) Constitution of Mozambique, Article 61. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Panama. (2007). Electoral Code of Panama, Article 9. Retrieved May 14, 2024. Government of Panama. Panama Electoral Code, Art. 521. Retrieved May 14, 2024; Redacción Digital La Estrella. (2009). “Incarcerated People Vote for the First Time” La Estrella de Panamá; Panamá América; Redacción Panamá América. (2018). “More than 800 Inmates Receive Ballots to Vote in 2019 Elections.” Panamá América.
Government of Malaysia. (2007). Malaysian Constitution, Article 119(3); In 2016, Malaysia’s High Court held that the Constitution permits individuals to vote who had registered before their conviction. Astro Aswani, A. (2016). “Court Dismisses Anwar’s Suit over Right to Vote.”
Legal Assistance Centre of Namibia, “Proving Citizenship for Voting.” Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Poland. (2011). Election Code of Poland, Article 10. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of New Zealand. (1993). New Zealand Elections Act of 1993 (as amended), Section 80(d). Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Nepal. (2016). Constitution of Nepal, Articles 84, 176, 222 and 223; Post Report. (2022). “Top court orders government to make arrangements for prisoners to vote.” The Kathmandu Post.
Government of Portugal. (2007). Criminal Code of Portugal, Articles 246, 346. Retrieved May 13, 2024.
Government of Ethiopia. (2004). Electoral Law of Ethiopia Amendment Proclamation, 1162/2019, Part III, Chapter 1, Paragraph 18.3(b). Retrieved March 5, 2024.
Government of Nigeria. (2022). Electoral Act of Nigeria. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Romania. Law 33/2017 of Romania, Article 5(6). Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of North Macedonia. North Macedonia Electoral Code, Article 113(1);. Balkan Insight. (2009). “Displaced, Incarcerated people Vote in Macedonia Poll,” Retrieved May 15, 2024; Inside Time. (2015). “Prisoner Voting in Europe,” Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Tunisia. (2022). Electoral Law of Tunisia (Decree No. 55 of 2022), Article 6; Government of Tunisia. (1913). Tunisia’s Criminal Code, Article 5, Article 62. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Pakistan. Constitution of Pakistan, Section 106. Retrieved May 15, 2024.; Government of Pakistan. (2020). Pakistan Election Act, Section 93(d). Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Uzbekistan. Electoral Code of Uzbekistan, Article 5. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Serbia. (2006). Constitution of Serbia, Article 52. Retrieved May 15, 2024; BBC News. (2022). “Prisoner Votes by European Country”. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
European Commission for Democracy Through Law (Venice Commission). (2020). “Report on Electoral Law and Electoral Administration in Europe,” para. 66. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
European Parliament. (2024). “Prisoners’ voting rights in European Parliament elections.” Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of South Africa. The Constitution of South Africa, Section 19(3)(a). Retrieved May 15, 2024.; Constitutional Court of South Africa. (2004). Minister of Home Affairs v. National Institute for Crime Prevention and the Re-Integration of Offenders (NICRO) and Others, para. 80. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Spain. (1985). General Electoral Law of Spain, Organic Law 5/1985, Third Article 1(a). Retrieved May 15, 2024; Government of Spain. (1995). Penal Code of Spain (as amended), Organic Law 10/1995, November 23, 2995. Retrieved March 4, 2024.
Government of Sudan. (2019). Constitution of Sudan, 2019. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Orr, G. (1998). “Ballotless and Behind Bars: Denial of the Franchise to Incarcerated People,” Federal Law Review, Vol. 26.
Government of Switzerland. (2014). Federal Constitution of Switzerland, Article 136. Retrieved May 15, 2024; BBC News. (2022). “Prisoner Votes by European Country”. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Taiwan. Penal Code of Taiwan, Article 36. Retrieved May 15, 2024.; Jono Thomson, J. (2023). “Taipei court rules in favor of prisoner’s right to vote.”
Government of Tanzania. Constitution of Tanzania. Retrieved December 4, 2023; Government of Tanzania. (2023). National Elections Act of the United Republic of Tanzania. Retrieved December 4, 2023; High Court of Tanzania. (2022). Civil Cause Number 3 of 2022. Retrieved December 4, 2023.
Ugandan High Court. (2020). Kalali v Attorney General & Anor (Miscellaneous Cause No. 35 of 2018) [2020] UGHCCD 172. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Ukraine. Constitution of Ukraine, Article 71. Retrieved May 15, 2024; BBC News. (2022). “Prisoner Votes by European Country”. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Africa Criminal Justice Reform. (2020). “The Right of Incarcerated people to Vote in Africa,”[Fact Sheet]. Retrieved May 15, 2024; Muyatwa Legal Partners. (2020). “The right of incarcerated people to vote under current Zambian Law,” Legal News. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Source: Legal research and analysis performed by Cleary, Gottlieb, Steen & Hamilton for Human Rights Watch, 2023-2024 and by researchers in the five regional divisions of Human Rights Watch.
Countries that restrict the right to vote only while a person is in prison
The 46 countries in Table III disenfranchise people for a wider set of offenses than those in Table II but during incarceration only, which is similar to the disenfranchisement laws in 23 U.S. states.
Table III. Forty-six Countries Deny Voting Rights Only During Term of Imprisonment
All country incarceration rates: World Prison Brief. “World Prison Brief Data”. Institute for Crime & Justice Policy Research (ICPR), at Birkbeck, University of London. Retrieved May 13, 2024.
Government of Algeria. (2021). Electoral Law of Algeria, Article 52, 59, and 284. Retrieved May 10, 2024.
Government of Angola. (2004). Electoral Law of Angola, Articles 11, 12, and 178. Retrieved May 13, 2024.
Government of Argentina. (2021). Electoral Code of Argentina, Articles 3 and 5. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Bahrain. Bahrain Penal Code, Part III, Chapter 1, Articles 49 and 50, 1976. Bahrain, Law 14 of 2002 (“A person is prohibited from practicing political rights if he is sentenced for a crime or incarcerated, until he finishes his sentence.”).
Government of Belarus. Constitution of Belarus, Article 64. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Botswana. (2016). Botswana Constitution, Section 67(5) Retrieved May 15, 2024.; Botswana Elections Act, Sections 6(1)b and 6(2) Retrieved May 15, 2024.; Government of Botswana. (1986). Botswana Penal Code. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Brazil. (2017). Constitution of Brazil, Chapter IV, Article 15. Retrieved February 9, 2024; Brazil Supreme Electoral Court. Tribunal Superior Eleitoral. Retrieved February 9, 2024.
Government of Bulgaria. (1991). Constitution of Bulgaria, Article 42(1). Retrieved May 15, 2024.; Convention on Human Rights. (2016). The case of Kulinski & Sabev v Bulgaria. European Court of Human Rights. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Cambodia. (1997). Cambodia Law on Elections for Members of the Assembly, Article 50. United Nations Refugee Agency. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Colombia. (1986). The Electoral Code of Colombia. Article 70. Retrieved May 15, 2024.; CNN Español. (2022). “Pueden Votar Presos Elecciones Colombia,” CNN Latin America.
Cuba Constitution, Article 205; Electoral Law of Cuba, Article 8 (2019).
Government of Ecuador. (2021). Constitution of Ecuador, Article 64, Paragraph 2, 2008. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Equatorial Guinea. Penal Code of Equatorial Guinea, Chapter III, Section 2 and 3. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
Government of The Gambia. (1996). Electoral Act of The Gambia, Article 13(b). Retrieved May 17, 2024.
Government of Guatemala. Electoral Code of Guatemala, Articles 4 and 5. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
Government of Guinea-Bissau. (2019). Electoral Law of Guinea-Bissau, Article 9. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
Government of Haiti. (1985). Haiti Penal Code, Articles 9, 17, 18. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
Government of Hungary. The Fundamental Law of Hungary, Article XXXIII (6).
Government of India. The Representation of the People Act 1951, Section 62(5); Government of India. (1997). Anukul Chandra Pradhan vs Union of India & Ors., Supreme Court of India. Supreme Court of India.
Government of Jamaica.(2015). Constitution of Jamaica, Article 37(2). Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Japan. Public Offices Election Act of Japan, Article 11. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Kazakhstan. (1913). Kazakhstan Electoral Code, Article 4(a). Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Kyrgyzstan. (2011). Kyrgyzstan Electoral Code, Article 3(3). Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Mali. (2001). Penal Code of Mali, Article 6, Section 2, Article 8, Section 1. Retrieved May 15, 2024.; Government of Mali. (2013). Electoral Guide of Mali. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Mauritania. Penal Code of Mauritania, Articles 23 and 27.
Government of Mexico. (2015). Constitution of Mexico of 1917 with amendments, Article 38. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Mongolia. (2015). Electoral Code for the Election of President, Article 11.5. Retrieved May 15, 2024; Government of Mongolia. (2020). Electoral Code for the Election of the Legislature, Article 5.3. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Nicaragua. (2011). Penal Law of Nicaragua, Article 55 and 56. Retrieved May 15, 2024.; Government of Nicaragua. Constitution of Nicaragua, Art. 47. Retrieved May 15, 2024
Government of Niger. Electoral Code of Niger, Article 8; Penal Code of Niger, Articles 12, 38-40.
Government of Papua New Guinea. (2016). Constitution of Papua New Guinea, Article 50(1). Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Paraguay. (1996). Electoral Code, Article 91 (Law 834). Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Peru. (2021). Constitution of Peru, Article 33. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of the Russian Federation. Constitution of the Russian Federation, Chapter 2, Article 32.3. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Sierra Leone. (2022). Public Elections Act, Section 17(b)-(c), 2022. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Singapore. (1954). Singapore Parliamentary Elections Act (1954), Section 6(1A). Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of the Republic of Korea. (2016). Republic of Korea Public Official Elections Act, Article 18. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Tajikistan. Electoral Code of Tajikistan, Article 2.
Government of Thailand. (2017). Constitution of Thailand, Section 96. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Turkey. (2017). Criminal Code, Article 53. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Turkmenistan. (2016). Constitution of Turkmenistan, Article 119. Retrieved May 15, 2024.; Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights. (2023). Parliamentary Elections in Turkmenistan, 2023. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of the United Kingdom. (1983). Representation of the People Act, United Kingdom, Section 3. Retrieved May 15, 2024; Johnston, N. (2023). Prisoners’ Voting Rights Research Briefing. United Kingdom Parliament. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Uruguay. Constitution of Uruguay, Article 80.
Government of Venezuela. (2015). Venezuela Penal Code, Articles 10, 16, 24. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Vietnam. (2015). Vietnam’s Law on Election of Deputies to the National Assembly and People’s Councils, Article 30, Section 1, 2. Retrieved May 16, 2024.
Government of Zimbabwe. (2013). Constitution of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe’s Constitution of 2013, Fourth Schedule. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Source: Legal research and analysis performed by Cleary, Gottlieb, Steen & Hamilton for Human Rights Watch, 2023-2024 and by researchers in the five regional divisions of Human Rights Watch. All country incarceration rates come from The World Prison Brief hosted by the Institute for Crime & Justice Policy Research (ICPR), at Birkbeck, University of London, https://www.prisonstudies.org/world-prison-brief-data.
Countries that impose more far-reaching restrictions on voting rights
The 14 countries in Table IV disenfranchise people for a wider set of offenses than those in Table III, and the loss of voting rights continues for some period after incarceration – much like the disenfranchisement laws in 14 U.S. states.
Table IV. Fourteen Countries Deny Voting Rights During Term of Imprisonment and Some Period Thereafter
All country incarceration rates: World Prison Brief. “World Prison Brief Data”. Institute for Crime & Justice Policy Research (ICPR), at Birkbeck, University of London. Retrieved May 13, 2024.
Government of Cameroon. (2012). Electoral Code of Cameroon, Section 47. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of the Central African Republic. Electoral Code of the Central African Republic, Article 5.
Government of El Salvador. (1983, Amended 2003). Constitution of El Salvador, Articles 75 and 77. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Guinea. (2010). Electoral Code of Guinea, Article 7. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Kuwait News Agency. (2008). “Rehabilitation Is a Prerequisite for Exercising the Right to Vote for Convicts”.
European Court of Human Rights. (2012). Scopolla v. Italy,, Case Number 126/05. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Lebanon. (2017). Electoral Law of Lebanon, (Law Number 44), Article 4, 2017. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Oman. Penal Act of Oman, Omani Penal Act, 2018, Article 58.
Government of Philippines. (1985). Omnibus Elections Code of Philippines, Section 118. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Qatar. Qatar Electoral Law, Article 3; Qatar Penal Code, Article 66.
Government of Rwanda. (2019). Rwanda Electoral Code, 2019, Articles 7 and 8. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Senegal. Penal Code, Article 29, Article 31, Article 34.
Government of Sri Lanka. (2023). Constitution of Sri Lanka, Article 89. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Government of Syria. (2014). General Elections Law of Syria, Article 5. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
Source: Legal research and analysis performed by Cleary, Gottlieb for Human Rights Watch, 2023-2024. All country incarceration rates come from The World Prison Brief hosted by the Institute for Crime & Justice Policy Research (ICPR), at Birkbeck, University of London, https://www.prisonstudies.org/world-prison-brief-data.
Five countries impose permanent disenfranchisement
In five countries—the Republic of the Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Madagascar, Morocco, and Togo—people whose convictions fall in certain categories are disenfranchised permanently. These five countries are in the same category with the 11 U.S. states that permanently disenfranchise at least some people convicted of felonies.
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